Java algorithm for finding faces in a graph

Question

I have a planar graph which I am creating myself. I want to find the faces of this graph but I can't find a working algorithm for doing so. What I've done so far is using an algorithm to find all the cycles in the graph but this gives me all possible cycles and I've tried but not found a way to only sort the faces out. One of my ideas was to use Path2Ds contains method to see if another shape was overlapping but since the faces share nodes, that doesn't work. The picture below demonstrates what I want and the code after shows my reproductionable example.

import java.awt.geom.Point2D;
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.Collections;
import java.util.HashSet;
import java.util.LinkedList;
import java.util.List;
import java.util.Set;

public class PolygonFinder {

    //  Graph modeled as list of edges
    static int[][] graph
            = {
                {1, 2}, {1, 6}, {1, 5}, {2, 6},
                {2, 3}, {3, 7}, {7, 4}, {3, 4},
                {5, 4}, {6, 5}
            };

    static List<int[]> cycles = new ArrayList<>();

    /**
     * @param args
     */
    public static void main(String[] args) {

        for (int[] graph1 : graph) {
            for (int j = 0; j < graph1.length; j++) {
                findNewCycles(new int[]{graph1[j]});
            }
        }

        cycles.stream().map(cy -> {
            String s = "" + cy[0];
            for (int i = 1; i < cy.length; i++) {
                s += "," + cy[i];
            }
            return s;
        }).forEachOrdered(s -> {
            System.out.println(s);
        });
    }

    static void findNewCycles(int[] path) {
        int n = path[0];
        int x;
        int[] sub = new int[path.length + 1];

        for (int[] graph1 : graph) {
            for (int y = 0; y <= 1; y++) {
                if (graph1[y] == n) {
                    x = graph1[(y + 1) % 2];
                    if (!visited(x, path)) //  neighbor node not on path yet
                    {
                        sub[0] = x;
                        System.arraycopy(path, 0, sub, 1, path.length);
                        //  explore extended path
                        findNewCycles(sub);
                    } else if ((path.length > 2) && (x == path[path.length - 1])) //  cycle found
                    {
                        int[] p = normalize(path);
                        int[] inv = invert(p);
                        if (isNew(p) && isNew(inv)) {
                            cycles.add(p);
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }

    //  check of both arrays have same lengths and contents
    static Boolean equals(int[] a, int[] b) {
        Boolean ret = (a[0] == b[0]) && (a.length == b.length);

        for (int i = 1; ret && (i < a.length); i++) {
            if (a[i] != b[i]) {
                ret = false;
            }
        }

        return ret;
    }

    //  create a path array with reversed order
    static int[] invert(int[] path) {
        int[] p = new int[path.length];

        for (int i = 0; i < path.length; i++) {
            p[i] = path[path.length - 1 - i];
        }

        return normalize(p);
    }

    //  rotate cycle path such that it begins with the smallest node
    static int[] normalize(int[] path) {
        int[] p = new int[path.length];
        int x = smallest(path);
        int n;

        System.arraycopy(path, 0, p, 0, path.length);

        while (p[0] != x) {
            n = p[0];
            System.arraycopy(p, 1, p, 0, p.length - 1);
            p[p.length - 1] = n;
        }

        return p;
    }

    //  compare path against known cycles
    //  return true, iff path is not a known cycle
    static Boolean isNew(int[] path) {
        Boolean ret = true;

        for (int[] p : cycles) {
            if (equals(p, path)) {
                ret = false;
                break;
            }
        }

        return ret;
    }

    //  return the int of the array which is the smallest
    static int smallest(int[] path) {
        int min = path[0];

        for (int p : path) {
            if (p < min) {
                min = p;
            }
        }

        return min;
    }

    //  check if vertex n is contained in path
    static Boolean visited(int n, int[] path) {
        Boolean ret = false;

        for (int p : path) {
            if (p == n) {
                ret = true;
                break;
            }
        }

        return ret;
    }
}

The result after running the above code is:

1,6,2
1,5,6,2
1,5,4,7,3,2
1,6,5,4,7,3,2
1,5,4,3,2
1,6,5,4,3,2
1,5,4,7,3,2,6
1,5,4,3,2,6
1,5,6
2,3,7,4,5,6
2,3,4,5,6
3,4,7

One of my best attempts at solving this is with the following code. The coordinates comes from the picture at the top.

    List<Polygon> polys = new LinkedList<>();
    Polygon p1 = new Polygon();
    p1.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p1.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    p1.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    Polygon p2 = new Polygon();
    p2.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p2.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p2.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    p2.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    Polygon p3 = new Polygon();
    p3.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p3.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p3.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p3.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(2, 2));
    p3.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p3.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    Polygon p4 = new Polygon();
    p4.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p4.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    p4.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p4.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p4.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(2, 2));
    p4.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p4.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    Polygon p5 = new Polygon();
    p5.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p5.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p5.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p5.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p5.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    Polygon p6 = new Polygon();
    p6.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p6.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    p6.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p6.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p6.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p6.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    Polygon p7 = new Polygon();
    p7.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p7.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p7.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p7.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(2, 2));
    p7.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p7.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    p7.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    Polygon p8 = new Polygon();
    p8.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p8.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p8.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p8.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p8.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    p8.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    Polygon p9 = new Polygon();
    p9.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-4, 4));
    p9.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p9.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    Polygon p10 = new Polygon();
    p10.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    p10.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p10.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(2, 2));
    p10.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p10.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p10.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    Polygon p11 = new Polygon();
    p11.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 5));
    p11.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p11.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p11.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(0, -2));
    p11.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(-1, 3));
    Polygon p12 = new Polygon();
    p12.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(3, 4));
    p12.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(4, 1));
    p12.addPoint(new Point2D.Double(2, 2));
    polys.add(p1);
    polys.add(p2);
    polys.add(p3);
    polys.add(p4);
    polys.add(p5);
    polys.add(p6);
    polys.add(p7);
    polys.add(p8);
    polys.add(p9);
    polys.add(p10);
    polys.add(p11);
    polys.add(p12);
    Set<Integer> toRemove = new HashSet<>();
    for (Polygon polyI : polys) {
        for (Polygon polyJ : polys) {
            if (polyI.equals(polyJ)) {
                continue;
            }
            if (polyI.contains(polyJ)) {
                toRemove.add(polys.indexOf(polyI));
            }
        }
    }
    List<Integer> list = new LinkedList<>(toRemove);
    Collections.sort(list);
    Collections.reverse(list);
    list.forEach((t) -> {
        polys.remove(t.intValue());
    });

    System.out.println("");
    polys.forEach((t) -> {
        System.out.println(t.getPoints());
    });

Polygons methods used is listed here.

@Override
public boolean contains(Point2D point) {
    return getPath().contains(point);
}

@Override
public boolean contains(IPolygon polygon) {
    List<Point2D> p2Points = polygon.getPoints();
    for (Point2D point : p2Points) {
        if (getPath().contains(point)) {
            if (!points.contains(point)) {
                return true;
            }
        }
    }
    return false;
}

private Path2D getPath() {
    Path2D path = new Path2D.Double();
    path.moveTo(points.get(0).getX(), points.get(0).getY());
    for (int i = 1; i < points.size(); i++) {
        path.lineTo(points.get(i).getX(), points.get(i).getY());
    }
    path.closePath();
    return path;
}

This code gives me the result below and the 2nd-4th is not wanted.

[Point2D.Double[-4.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 3.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 5.0]]
[Point2D.Double[-4.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[0.0, -2.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 3.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 5.0]]
[Point2D.Double[-4.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 3.0], Point2D.Double[0.0, -2.0], Point2D.Double[4.0, 1.0], Point2D.Double[2.0, 2.0], Point2D.Double[3.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 5.0]]
[Point2D.Double[-4.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[0.0, -2.0], Point2D.Double[4.0, 1.0], Point2D.Double[2.0, 2.0], Point2D.Double[3.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 5.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 3.0]]
[Point2D.Double[-4.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[0.0, -2.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 3.0]]
[Point2D.Double[-1.0, 5.0], Point2D.Double[3.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[2.0, 2.0], Point2D.Double[4.0, 1.0], Point2D.Double[0.0, -2.0], Point2D.Double[-1.0, 3.0]]
[Point2D.Double[3.0, 4.0], Point2D.Double[4.0, 1.0], Point2D.Double[2.0, 2.0]]

Answer 1

Here's an option for identifying the faces that's based on the idea of half-edges. At a high level, the approach looks like this:

1. Replace each edge linking two points u and v with the directed edges (u, v) and (v, u). These are called half-edges.
2. Chain the half-edges together so that a single chain of half edges perfectly traces out one of the faces of the plane graph.
3. Walk those chains to identify all of the faces of the plane graph.

Visually, that will look something like this. We'll begin with the graph looking like this:

and end with the graph looking like this:

Once we have that second graph, walking the colored chains will identify all the faces.

The question, then, is how exactly to determine how to chain the half-edges together. The basic idea is the following: we want to chain the edges together so that

• all internal faces have the half-edges winding around counterclockwise (or anticlockwise, or widdershins, depending on which side of the pond you're from),
• the external face has its half-edges winding around clockwise.

Provided we can come up with a convenient strategy that will chain things like this, we can easily glue the half-edges together to get our desired property. There are many ways to do this, but the one I'd like to focus on works by looking locally at each node.

Imagine you have some node X whose neighbors are A, B, C, and D, as shown below.

Here, I've marked half-edges leaving X in solid blue, and half-edges entering X in dotted orange.

Now, focus on the outgoing half-edge (X, A) in this diagram. When we've wired everything together, some other half-edge (_, X) needs to chain into (X, A). Which edge is it? From the picture, we can see it's the half-edge (B, X), forming the partial chain (B, X), (X, A).

Similarly, focus on the half-edge (X, B) in this diagram. As before, when we've wired all the half-edges into chains, we'd need some way of determining which half-edge (_, X) should come before it. And by inspection, we can see that it would be (C, X).

More generally, notice that

• The half-edge before (X, A) is (B, X).
• The half-edge before (X, B) is (C, X).
• The half-edge before (X, C) is (D, X).
• The half-edge before (X, D) is (A, X).

See the pattern? If we order the neighbors around this node counterclockwise (anticlockwise), then the half-edge that comes before an edge (X, Y) can be found as follows: assuming Z is the next neighbor counterclockwise around the node, then the half-edge that comes before (X, Y) is the half-edge (Z, X).

This gives us a very nice strategy for wiring the edges into chains while meeting our above requirements. Here's some pseudocode:

For each node v:
    Get v's neighbors sorted anticlockwise as u_1, u_2, u_3, ..., u_n
    For each half-edge (v, u_i):
        Update half-edge (u_{i+1 mod n}, v) to chain to (v, u_i)

At this point, we've wired everything into chains, and we're done!

There are a few technical details here I've glossed over that would need to be resolved before you code this up. For example:

1. How do you sort the neighbors of a node v counterclockwise? That can be done by computing the angle each neighbor of v makes with v using Math.atan2(dy, dx) and sorting based on those values.
2. How do you keep track of what chains into what? If all you're doing is identifying the faces, you could make a Map<HalfEdge, HalfEdge> associating each half-edge with the next half-edge after it. If you're planning on keeping the chains around for the future, you might want to make each HalfEdge part of a linked list that has a reference to the next half-edge in the sequence.
3. How do you map from a pair of nodes to a half-edge running between them? This could be done with something like a Map from pairs of nodes to half-edges. You could also construct the half-edges and have each half-edge store a pointer to the half-edge running in the other direction.

---

^{Attribution: I first learned this algorithm from this related question on the Computer Science Stack Exchange that asks how to build a doubly-connected edge list (DECL) from a collection of line segments. My contributions are in simplifying the algorithm to only give back the chains needed to identify the faces and in adding some visuals to better motivate the concepts.}

Answer 2

In a planar embedding consisting only of straight lines, the edges of a face meeting in a vertex must be adjacent among all edges of that node.

Therefore, if we are given such an embedding, and sort the edges of each vertex according to their direction, we can easily walk the perimeter of a face by leaving each vertex on the edge immediately to the right of the edge we arrived through.

As a data structure, I'd probably choose something like this:

class Vertex {
    Edge edges;
}

class Edge {
    Vertex source;
    Vertex target;
    Edge reverse; // the same edge, seen from the other end
    Edge next; // forms a circular linked list, sorted in order of direction
}

Then we can iterate the perimeter of a face like this:

Edge startingEdge = ...;
Edge currentEdge = startingEdge;
do {
    currentEdge = currentEdge.reverse.next;
} while (currentEdge != startingEdge);

To sort edges by direction, we can use the fact that a x b is negative if a is to the left of b (as seen from the origin of the coordinate system).

boolean left(Point2D.Double a, Point2D.Double b) {
    return a.x * b.y - a.y * b.x < 0; 
}

We can the use a simple insertion sort to sort edges by direction (which will be fast enough since planar graphs have a bounded average node degree, so the edge lists will be short).

Answer 3

1. For each edge, take the co-ordinates within your embedding of the edge's vertices and use them to calculate the angle of the edge using trigonometry.

   For example, the angle from (x₁, y₁) to (x₂, y₂) measured anti-clockwise from the positive x-axis is given by Math.atan2(y2-y1,x2-x1).

2. For each vertex, create a cyclic edge ordering by sorting the edges by their angle. This could be stored as an array or you could use a cyclic list data structure.

3. Pick an edge, follow it to an adjacent vertex and then follow the next adjacent clockwise edge and repeat following edges to the next vertex and then the next clockwise edge until you get back to the starting edge; then you have found a face of the graph.

4. Repeat step 3 picking an unvisited edge or a visited edge in the opposite direction to previous and follow it in that same clockwise direction to find the next face. Repeat this until all the edges have been visited twice (once in each direction) and then you have found all the faces.

In Java, that would be:

import java.awt.geom.Point2D;
import java.awt.Polygon;
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.Comparator;
import java.util.stream.Collectors;
import java.text.MessageFormat;

public class GraphFaces
{
  static class Vertex
  {
    final int index;
    final Point2D point;
    final ArrayList<Edge> outboundEdges = new ArrayList<>();
    
    
    public Vertex( final int index, final Point2D point )
    {
      this.index = index;
      this.point = point;
    }
    
    public void addEdge( final Edge edge )
    {
      this.outboundEdges.add( edge );
    }
    
    public void sortEdges()
    {
      this.outboundEdges.sort((e1,e2)->Double.compare(e1.angle,e2.angle));
      
      Edge prev = this.outboundEdges.get(this.outboundEdges.size() - 1);
      for ( final Edge edge: this.outboundEdges )
      {
        edge.setNextEdge( prev );
        prev = edge;
      }
    }
    
    @Override
    public String toString()
    {
      return Integer.toString(this.index);
      // return MessageFormat.format("({0},{1})",this.point.getX(),this.point.getY());
    }
  }
  
  static class Edge
  {
    final Vertex from;
    final Vertex to;
    final double angle;
    boolean visited = false;
    Edge next = null;
    Edge reverse = null;
    
    public Edge( final Vertex from, final Vertex to )
    {
      this.from = from;
      this.to = to;
      this.angle = Math.atan2(to.point.getY() - from.point.getY(), to.point.getX() - from.point.getX());
      from.addEdge( this );
    }
    
    public Vertex getFrom()
    {
      return this.from;
    }

    public Vertex getTo()
    {
      return this.to;
    }

    public void setNextEdge( final Edge edge )
    {
      this.next = edge;
    }

    public void setReverseEdge( final Edge edge )
    {
      this.reverse = edge;
    }

    @Override
    public String toString()
    {
      return MessageFormat.format("{0} -> {1}", this.from, this.to);
    }
  }

  public static void main(final String[] args)
  {
    final Vertex[] vertices = {
      new Vertex( 1, new Point2D.Double(-4,+4) ),
      new Vertex( 2, new Point2D.Double(-1,+5) ),
      new Vertex( 3, new Point2D.Double(+3,+4) ),
      new Vertex( 4, new Point2D.Double(+4,+1) ),
      new Vertex( 5, new Point2D.Double(+0,-2) ),
      new Vertex( 6, new Point2D.Double(-1,+3) ),
      new Vertex( 7, new Point2D.Double(+2,+2) )
    };
     
    final int[][] graph = {
      {1, 2}, {1, 6}, {1, 5}, {2, 6}, {2, 3}, {3, 7}, {7, 4}, {3, 4}, {5, 4}, {6, 5}
    };
    
    final Edge[] edges = new Edge[2 * graph.length];

    for ( int i = 0; i < graph.length; i++ )
    {
      final Vertex from = vertices[graph[i][0]-1];
      final Vertex to = vertices[graph[i][1]-1];
      edges[2*i] = new Edge( from, to );
      edges[2*i+1] = new Edge( to, from );
      
      edges[2*i].setReverseEdge(edges[2*i+1]);
      edges[2*i+1].setReverseEdge(edges[2*i]);
    }
    
    
    for ( final Vertex vertex: vertices )
    {
      vertex.sortEdges();
    }
    
    final ArrayList<ArrayList<Edge>> faces = new ArrayList<>();
    for ( final Edge edge: edges )
    {
      if ( edge.visited )
      {
        continue;
      }
      final ArrayList<Edge> face = new ArrayList<>();
      faces.add( face );
      Edge e = edge;
      do
      {
        face.add(e);
        e.visited = true;
        e = e.reverse.next;
      }
      while (e != edge);
      
      System.out.println( face.stream().map(Edge::getFrom).collect(Collectors.toList()) );
    }
  }
}

Which outputs:

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
[2, 1, 6]
[6, 1, 5]
[2, 6, 5, 4, 7, 3]
[3, 7, 4]

Note: this includes the exterior face of the graph.

Alternatively, if you want to: test your graph for planarity; generate all possible embeddings of a (biconnected) graph; and generate a cyclic edge ordering for one (or more) of those embeddings then you can use the PhD thesis Planarity Testing by Path Addition, which includes complete Java source code in the appendices.