Unfortunately, there is not a simple way to get that information. You'll need to get there through the following path:
Step 1. Get the current EC2 instance ID from the instance metadata.
curl -s http://169.254.169.254/latest/meta-data/instance-id
You may need the current region as well.
curl -s http://169.254.169.254/latest/meta-data/placement/availability-zone/ | sed 's/\(.*\)[a-z]/\1/'
Step 2. Get the ID of the IAM Instance Profile attached to your EC2 instance.
aws ec2 describe-instances \
--region us-east-1 \
--instance-id i-12345678 \
--query 'Reservations[0].Instances[0].IamInstanceProfile.Id'
Remember to substitute the EC2 instance ID and region as required.
Step 3. Get the IAM instance profile roles.
aws iam list-instance-profiles \
--query "InstanceProfiles[?InstanceProfileId=='ABCDEFG'].Roles"
Remember to substitute the IAM instance profile ID.
Notes:
- An IAM instance profile may have more than one IAM role associated with it. Usually it will be only one, but it could have more.