I spent several days trying to solve this, so I'm going to post both the question and answer for the next person.
In CentOS 7, mounting a folder shared by Windows 7 with the following command:
mount -t cifs //MyWindowsPC/SharedFolder $MOUNTPOINT -o user=$USER,uid=$USER,gid="`id -g "$USER"`",cache=none
resulted in Input/Output errors using parallel make (make -j), but not with sequential make. The files that gcc/g++ were unable to read changed with each attempt and occasionally gcc/g++ would note that the error was not reproducible. This led me on quite a wild goose chase as system logs showed very generic CIFS/VFS errors.